Seven Translation Techniques That Every Student Should Know
An exploration of Vinay and Darbelnet's seven translation techniques through the lens of modern methods in translation studies.
During my Masters in Translation Studies, we were taught the importance of both theory and practice when translating. Our first semester consisted of a module on each, with links between the two being continually drawn. We were encouraged to see our translation methods not as merely dealing with words, syntax and grammar but also about power, representation and creativity.
As I practiced the skill of translating between French and English, I had a growing appreciation for translators and linguists who have created theoretical models to facilitate my practice. Two such people are Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet. Their landmark piece entitled Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais was published in 1958 and included seven techniques for translating texts.
Putting aside the issues of creating any simplified model for a highly complex process, I have found their techniques useful for unsticking my brain when I come across a translation challenge and for encouraging me to think more creatively about my approaches.
Before we delve into the seven techniques, it’s important to understand that they are not designed to be overarching methodologies for translating entire texts (other scholars have proposed those). Instead, Vinay and Darbelnet offer straightforward techniques for specific situations which may arise given the vocabulary and syntax of the source and target languages. Nor is their list exhaustive; I know I’ve used more than these seven:
1. Borrowing
Some argue that borrowing isn’t translating at all since it’s simply a case of lifting a term from one language to the next. The pronunciation may change but the spelling and meaning will remain the same. However, I’d argue that it’s a powerful tool in a translator’s toolbelt, especially if one is using a foreignisation rather than domestication method.
Sometimes, the borrowed term becomes so common that it joins the target language as a new word and we cease to view it as foreign. Think of baguette, sombrero or cappuccino. Other times, an uncommon borrowing helps to create a feeling of foreignness. This is particularly the case for literature where it can be used for effect.
When I was a teenager, I loved reading Donna Leon’s detective novels set in Venice. She often leaves words in Italian rather than translating them for her Anglophone readers. This helped me to learn more about the culture and inspired me to learn Italian myself.
Obviously, this technique requires more work on the part of the reader (I appreciate not everyone is as geeky about languages as I am) and may result in a lack of understanding, or worse a misunderstanding, so it should be used strategically.
2. Calque
Similar to a borrowing is a calque. Confusingly though, the term ‘calque’ is a borrowing (lifted and not changed). It comes from French where it means a tracing, imitation or close copy. Calques create a new word in the target language by adopting the structure of the source language. This may be a case of copying the phrasing, meaning, morphology or syntax.
One common example is ‘skyscraper’ which becomes ‘arranha-céu’ [literally scratch-sky] in Portuguese. You’ll find many other languages use the same idea. Another example is ‘it goes without saying’ which is a phraseological calque of the French ‘ça va sans dire’.
Calques are more common than you might think and occur across a whole range of languages. However, trying to create a new one in your text might sound odd if it’s not already established. Perhaps that’s your intention, but it’s worth bearing in mind. So too, power dynamics are at play, since calques are more common where there is prestige associated with the source language, leading to a desire for imitation in the target language.
3. Literal Translation
A word-for-word translation may happen naturally when two languages are linguistically and culturally close. This means that the linguistic structures will likely be similar and therefore not cause the translation to sound unnatural. But it also recognises that cultural cousins will have similar perspectives on the world which reduces the impact of loss and gain in the translation process.
Alternatively, a translator may choose to remain as close to the source language as possible, even when it makes the translation clunky. This may be for ideological reasons, such as translating sacred texts if meaning is believed to be closely linked to form. Either way, the translator must always remember that no two peoples or languages are the same and therefore non-equivalence is always part of the process.
4. Transposition
Things start getting a little more complicated with transposition. It helps to think of it like ‘moving position’ as the technique involves moving from one grammatical category to another without altering the meaning of the text. So, a verb may be better placed as a noun or vice versa. Perhaps the target doesn’t have an equivalent verb which encompasses the meaning of the source text but it does have a noun. In which case, the translator will shift the syntax around and use a different grammatical category.
Transposition is also important for rendering a text more naturally in another language. Sometimes a close translation is possible but it just doesn’t sound [insert language here] enough. The beauty of learning a new language is learning how people from other countries and cultures think. Part of that process is learning to transpose structures from your first language into another and feeling the impact a change in perspective has on your mind.
Here’s an example from French. It would be common to say in English ‘the teacher thinks that…’ and whilst there’s nothing grammatically incorrect about saying ‘le professeur pense que…’, you’ll often see the structure ‘selon le professeur, …’ meaning ‘according to the teacher, …’. ‘Selon’ is one of my favourite French words because it makes me think differently. It’s just so French!
The beauty of learning a new language is learning how people from other countries and cultures think.
5. Modulation
The reasons you might use transposition are similar for modulation. Perhaps there isn’t a word that quite suits the meaning, or you need to make it sound more natural in the target language. An additional reason is that some information may be unknown and therefore the source language structure doesn’t work in the target language.
Modulation involves changing the structure of the text by introducing a change of view, such as switching the subject and object of the verb or turning a negative to a positive. Writers do this all the time within the same language; for example, ‘it is not easy’ could also be rendered as ‘it is difficult’ and there may be a stylistic reason you choose one over the other. There are times when moving the source and target languages obliges you to use modulation and other times when, just like the writer looking for a better way of saying something, the translator may make a creative choice to use modulation. After all, translation is a very creative act.
6. Reformulation (or equivalence)
With reformulation we are moving even further into creative and freer translation techniques. Reformulation involves using an entirely different expression to convey the same idea. Idioms are a classic example of this, since they are often culturally and linguistically bound. So as to achieve the same meaning, the entire form (the words used to create the idiom) are replaced.
Just make sure the idioms are actually used. I remember learning as a child to translate ‘it’s raining cats and dogs’ to ‘il pleut des cordes’ in French. I wondered how often the French actually say ‘it’s raining ropes’ given that I don’t think I’ve ever heard a Brit say ‘it’s raining cats and dogs’ as an authentic turn of phrase.
7. Adaptation
Finally, we have adaptation which is best thought of as cultural substitution since it involves entirely replacing a cultural element with an equivalent in the target language. In stark contrast to a borrowing, this is more often used with a domestication approach since the result is to remove any sense of the foreign.
Sports and food are two easy to grasp examples of the use of adaptation. Baseball is common in the US but rare in the UK so, to convey a sense of national pride in a sport (if the exact nature of the sport isn’t strictly relevant), you might adapt baseball for cricket. Whilst an intralingual example between two anglophone nations may seem unnecessary, you’d be surprised how many times this happens as films, books and media travel across the pond.
Let’s take another example. Prahok [ប្រហុក] is a salted and fermented fish paste commonly found in Cambodia. While there are comparable dishes elsewhere in Asia, there aren't in the UK. So, you might choose to borrow the term, offer a short description or a gloss translation. Alternatively, you could adapt the term and replace it with as close an equivalent as we have in the UK. Pâté comes to mind since it is already an established borrowing in English. But then, of course, prahok and pâté aren’t the same at all and the connotation associated with each doesn’t match. And there we have the inherent challenge of translation and why it’s so important to use a range of techniques in a single text.
To sum up, while Vinay and Darbelnet’s list can be problematised and disputed, I think it helps budding translators to know there is great power in the act of translation and much to think about when deciding which methods and techniques to employ. Their seven translation techniques give us more options and help us to think creatively when translating between languages and cultures.
For further reading, Anthony Pym (2014) outlines some of the language politics behind Vinay and Darbelnet’s translation techniques.
I’d love to hear your comments on the techniques, particularly if you have more examples to draw on. Please share with students and colleagues alike.
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